泰山娘娘(也稱碧霞元君)是華北地區主要神仙之一，自明至清受到朝廷相當多的贊助。其地位幾乎與天后相媲美。不過，有些文人墨客對她的真實性有所質疑，也對她受到朝廷和老百姓的尊崇漠不關心，或持敵對態度。在清代，文人的懷疑態度日益顯著，而且以編寫文章與小說等方式予以批評譴責。隨著這些批判日益傳播，使得原本崇拜她的菁英信徒轉為不公開地膜拜或者完全放棄。信徒祈求回報的內容日益狹窄和個人化，而且在北京和天津地區之外，信徒群體日趨單一化(女性和貧民)。隨著泰山娘娘社會基礎的變化，其形象也有所變化，從強調她與士紳的關係，並支持正統社會秩序，轉變為講述她如何以智取勝那些男性神仙或者官員，從而幫助自己或非菁英女性，至二十世紀則日益集中在她如何施騙而獲益，以守住泰山聖地。 再者，有些信徒意識到文人對碧霞元君的批判，轉而強調碧霞元君的機靈使她能夠欺騙其他神仙而佔據泰山。由此可見信徒和文人享有共同的文化框架，從而可以互相辯論。泰山娘娘的故事有助於我們重新考慮一直以來用來描述國家、宗教、階級差異以及中國文化統一性之間關係的一些標準模式。

During the Ming and early Qing dynasties, Taishan niangniang (more formally known as Bixia yuanjun) was one of the most popular deities in North China and had some following in the Lower Yangzi region; she also enjoyed significant patronage from the imperial court. She seemed to be on her way to full incorporation within the official pantheon, much like Tianhou (Mazu, to whom she was often compared). Some literati, however, questioned her authenticity and were indifferent or even hostile to the honors she received from both the court and ordinary people. During the Qing, this literati skepticism became increasingly pronounced, and expressed itself in media ranging from scholarship pointing out historical impossibilities in her “biography,” to hostile comments in literati guides to Taishan, to literati novels that blamed her and her supporters for disasters. As these critiques spread, previously supportive members of the elite either became less public about their patronage of this goddess or abandoned it entirely. The range of favors sought from her became narrower and more personal, and her remaining constituency became more exclusively female and plebeian, except in the Beijing/Tianjin area. Taishan niangniangbecame especially associated with matchmakers, midwives, and other women often denigrated in elite texts. As Taishan niangniang’s social base changed, so did her image. Twentieth century stories about her came to focus on how she used trickery to gain and keep her cherished place atop Taishan – a place so charged with ling that its occupation by a deity lacking elite support was an anomaly requiring explanation. Consequently, the story of Taishan niangniang –who was never fully “co-opted” in the way that many widely used models of Chinese popular religion would predict, and as many observers in the Ming seem to have expected – requires that we reconsider some of the standard models we have used for describing the relationships of the state, religion, class differences, and the idea of a shared Chinese culture.

國家; 民間信仰; 性別角色; 泰山; 文人

state; popular religion; gender; Taishan; literati