雍正二年，山東巡撫陳世倌揭發，山東不少穆斯林具備「紳士」的身份。「紳士」既屬於帝國的官僚體系，必須是「讀孔孟之書」的儒者，自不能同時是「異端」、「邪教」。針對舉報，雍正帝含糊地回應，要求官員「相機而為之」。終雍正一朝，朝廷多次討論這項議題，雍正帝接納穆斯林參與政府的傾向逐漸明顯。本文希望藉由對雍正年間穆斯林官僚與儒者之間宗教競爭的梳理，指出儒教政治觀念建構的「德治」國家體系具有道德∕文化的排他性，儒教價值與官僚體系密不可分。在雍正帝清楚地表達接納穆斯林進入政府體系後，我們又能發現類近的寬容論述出現在雍正朝以後的儒者身上。就這一點而言，中國的宗教寬容論述與歐美一樣，同樣誕生於橫向的宗教競爭與現實政治衝突中。本文嘗試以上述案例，回應杜贊奇(Prasenjit Duara)等學者所提出中國獨有的「世俗主義」及華琛(James L. Watson)等學者的「標準化」討論，指出這些理論無法套用於伊斯蘭教在帝制中國的遭遇。

In 1724, Chen Shiguan, the Grand Coordinator of Shandong Province, revealed that many Muslims had attained the title of “gentry” after passing the imperial examination. Since “gentry” was a title of honour received by scholars who were educated in Confucianism, it was abnormal for “heretics” like Muslims to join the bureaucracy. Emperor Yongzheng perfunctorily responded to Chen’s report and requested that bureaucrats “wait for a better opportunity to handle the case.” Through the reign of Yongzheng, the imperial government had long and continuous discussions on this issue, and the stance of the Emperor towards accepting Muslims to join the bureaucracy eventually became clearer. This article aims to illustrate the moral /cultural exclusiveness of the Rule of Virtue in Confucianism and the inseparable relationship between Confucian values and imperial bureaucracy through analyzing the religious competition between Muslim and Confucian bureaucrats during the era. Nevertheless, after the Emperor explicitly expressed his acceptance of Muslims in His government, Confucian scholar-bureaucrats later gradually developed a discourse of tolerance that was similar to that of the Emperor. This article aims to demonstrate how religious tolerance was born of “horizontal” religious competition and political disputes. Furthermore , after analyzing this case, theories such as Prasenjit Duara’s “secularization with Chinese characteristics” and James L. Watson’s “standardization” seem unable to reconcile the state of affairs of Islam in imperial China.

儒教;伊斯蘭;雍正帝;世俗主義;宗教寬容

Confucianism; Islam; Emperor Yongzheng; Secularism; Religious Tolerance